Основные теории

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Realism

Realism posits the basic structure of international relations as anarchy

• Anarchy means the absence of a central authority.
• To say that international politics is anarchic is to say there is no central agent with the power to enforce norms for all.
• Instead there are a number of (to an extent-) independent entities – states - with similar interests that may/will conflict.

‘Classical’ realism (e.g. Morgenthau)
• anarchy rooted in human nature
• Given human nature, it is rational for there to be conflict and competition for power between states in securing their national interests, most importantly survival.

‘Neo’ realism (e.g. Waltz, Mearsheimer)
• More ‘scientific’ in approach – anarchy analysed in structural terms. International anarchy composed of like, self-determining unitary actors
• Given this, conflicts are driven by the same imperatives of security and survival

(a) for state policy
• States must help themselves, since they can rely on no other state to help them.
• States should pursue the national interest, defined in terms of security and survival, realised in terms of power

- Statesmen’s primary (only) responsibility is to the national interest (classical Realism)
- Statesmen’s actions are determined by imperatives of security and survival (Neo-realism)

(b) international relations generally
• conflictual, ‘power politics’ arising from a ‘security dilemma’
• pessimism about cooperation, international morality
• the role of diplomacy
• the idea of a ‘balance of power’
• ‘offensive’ and ‘defensive’ realisms have different views on calculations of interest

Realist ethical claims, and their problems
(1) No room for ethics in anarchy – (a) leaves us too exposed (b) no morality without government

Response:
• Anarchy not as “pure” as the realist maintains – an appeal to the liberal critique of realism.
• Anarchy doesn’t mean there’s no room for morality, just that the moral principles might differ.

(2) In anarchy, the only ethical thing to do is to pursue the national interest

Response:
• Is the national interest merely survival, or beyond?
• We may want our leaders to do bad things on our behalf – but this idea of “dirty hands” is itself an ethical one(and disputed)

(3) All talk of ethics is actually a cover for interest, either self-interest or national interest

Response:
• True that some moralising from politicians (and others) is just self-interest, but not all
• To reject all talk of morality as self-interested seems too radical for its own good

Liberalism

Anarchy can be mitigated or avoided, so that the analysis offered by realism does not follow

“Classical” liberalism (arguably) emphasises the first and fourth of these (e.g. Kant)

“Neo-Liberalism”, offering a more scientific analysis, emphasises the final three (e.g. Keohane)

• A larger role for morality in international affairs
• More optimistic view of human nature
• Greater impact of domestic/international norms on state policy
• The rationality of cooperation
• The extent of interdependence

• Pluralist account of International society:
- International organisations and regimes
- Other non-state actors, importantly including economic ones
- and states

• “Complex Interdependence”
• Patterns of cooperation based on mutual interests: collective responses to international issues. e.g. security
• Relative peace, especially between democracies

The Neo-Neo debate

Where does the balance lie between the features of neo-liberalism and neo- realism?

Agree - international politics is anarchic
- “Scientific” Approach

Disagree
- On the stability of international cooperation
- On the relative importance of power and preferences
- On the appeal of relative and absolute gains

constructivist approaches

General Claim – Agents and Structures:
• Constructivism focuses on how and why the agents and structures of world politics make it the way it is: it is concerned with ideas and meanings
• Agents neither entirely determine, nor are determined by, structures
• Agents’ identities and structures are given content through social interaction: they are socially constructed
• one important form of power is power over these meanings, and the processes that form them
• methodologically between the two strong positions above: interpreting is necessary before we can explain

With regard to Anarchy: “Anarchy is what states make of it” (Wendt)
• Power politics, security and the national interest are just one construction of anarchy
• Things could be different
• Why is anarchy constructed in this way?

Cosmopolitanism

- Moral Cosmopolitan view – individual human beings are the source of moral value. Justice isn’t largely internal to states, but necessarily global. States might help or hinder this, but either way, they are not basic to this view.

Some examples of cosmopolitan claims:
- Universal Human Rights (see below)
- Emancipation
- Gender Equality
(the start of a further debate over which values should be applied across the globe)
Some examples of cosmopolitan proposals:
- a global parliament (David Held)
- substantial global redistribution of wealth (Thomas Pogge)
- Contraction and Convergence in greenhouse gas emissions (GCI)


How cosmopolitan should international morality be?

(a) Cosmopolitanism and diversity
- Cultural Relativism: Morality is relative to different societies or cultures: there is no single correct morality
- Cultural Imperialism: Is this an attempt to impose one set of values on many diverse communities?
Response:
- cosmopolitanism must be sensitive to cultural diversity
- some overlap between cultures, some agreed international norms
- But not all values are equally good

(b) Cosmopolitanism and partiality towards our own…
(a)self-interest
(b)family and friends
(c)nation
(d)state

Response: cosmopolitanism must make room for some partiality towards (a) and (b) – but the cosmopolitans see the claims of (c) and (d) as less persuasive

• Is cosmopolitanism too utopian?
• International Morality and International Law


The example of universal human rights
- Conflicts with (a) non-western cultures, (b) state sovereignty
- Problems with (a) enforcement in anarchy, (b) deciding which values (c) abuse of the language of HR

- But still – (growing) importance of HR norms shows importance of morality, presence of cosmopolitan perspective